Hiemstra, R. (1994). Self-directed learning. In T. Husen &
T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Education
(second edition), Oxford: Pergamon Press. Reprinted here by permission.
Most adults spend a considerable time acquiring information and learning
new skills. The rapidity of change, the continuous creation of new knowledge,
and an ever-widening access to information make such acquisitions necessary.
Much of this learning takes place at the learner's initiative, even if available
through formal settings. A common label given to such activity is self-directed
learning. In essence, self-directed learning is seen as any study form in
which individuals have primary responsibility for planning, implementing,
and even evaluating the effort. Most people, when asked, will proclaim a
preference for assuming such responsibility whenever possible.
Research, scholarship, and interest in self-directed learning has literally
exploded around the world in recent years. Few topics, if any, have received
more attention by adult educators than self-directed learning. Related books,
articles, monographs, conferences, and symposia abound. In addition, numerous
new programs, practices, and resources for facilitating self-directed learning
have been created. These include such features as learning contracts, self-help
books, support groups, open-university programs, electronic networking,
and computer-assisted learning. This article extracts some meaning from
all this information.
1. What is Self-Directed Learning?
Several things are known about self-directed learning: (a) individual learners
can become empowered to take increasingly more responsibility for various
decisions associated with the learning endeavor; (b) self-direction is best
viewed as a continuum or characteristic that exists to some degree in every
person and learning situation; (c) self-direction does not necessarily mean
all learning will take place in isolation from others; (d) self-directed
learners appear able to transfer learning, in terms of both knowledge and
study skill, from one situation to another; (e) self-directed study can
involve various activities and resources, such as self-guided reading, participation
in study groups, internships, electronic dialogues, and reflective writing
activities; (f) effective roles for teachers in self-directed learning are
possible, such as dialogue with learners, securing resources, evaluating
outcomes, and promoting critical thinking; (g) some educational institutions
are finding ways to support self-directed study through open-learning programs,
individualized study options, non-traditional course offerings, and other
innovative programs.
This latter component, educational institutions developing innovative responses
to self-directed learning preferences, has spawned several unique programming
efforts. For example, establishment of the Open University in England in
1969 generated similar efforts around the world. St. Francis Xavier University
(Antigonish, Nova Scotia), Teacher College (Columbia University, New York
City), Syracuse University's Adult Education Program (Syracuse, New York),
and the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (Toronto, Canada) have
incorporated self-directed learning principles into various of their adult
education efforts. These latter two (Syracuse University and Ontario Institute)
have assimilated some computer-mediated instruction into their programs.
Brookfield (1986), a British adult educator now residing in the United States,
describes other higher education efforts where individualized, self-directed
learning opportunities exist, including locations in Germany, Denmark, and
Eastern Europe. Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) describe several self-directed
efforts in China, Indonesia, Japan, Norway, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Sweden,
and Tanzania. Knowles and Associates (1984) describe various self-directed
learning efforts in various government, industry, health, religion, and
military settings.
1.1 History of Self-Directed Learning
Self-directed learning has existed even from classical antiquity. For example,
self-study played an important part in the lives of such Greek philosophers
as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Other historical examples of self-directed
learners included Alexander the Great, Caesar, Erasmus, and Descartes. Social
conditions in Colonial America and a corresponding lack of formal educational
institutions necessitated that many people learn on their own.
Early scholarly efforts to understand self-directed learning took place
some 150 years ago in the United States. Craik (1840) documented and celebrated
the self-education efforts of several people. About this same time in Great
Britain, Smiles (1859) published a book entitled Self-Help, that
applauded the value of personal development.
However, it is during the last three decades that self-directed learning
has become a major research area. Groundwork was laid through the observations
of Houle (1961) (University of Chicago, Illinois). He interviewed 22 adult
learners and classified them into three categories based on reasons for
participation in learning: (a) goal-oriented, who participate mainly to
achieve some end goal; (b) activity-oriented, who participate for social
or fellowship reasons; (c) learning-oriented, who perceive of learning as
an end in itself. It is this latter group that resembles the self-directed
learner identified in subsequent research.
The first attempt to better understand learning-oriented individuals was
made by Tough, A Canadian researcher and one of Houle's doctoral students.
His dissertation effort to analyze self-directed teaching activities and
subsequent research with additional subjects resulted in a book, The
Adult's Learning Projects (1979). This work has stimulated many similar
studies with various populations in various locations.
In parallel scholarship during this same time period, Knowles popularized
in North America the term, andragogy, with corresponding adult instructional
processes. His 1975 publication, Self-directed Learning, provided
foundational definitions and assumptions that guided much subsequent research:
(a) self-directed learning assumes that humans grow in capacity and need
to be self-directing; (b) learners' experiences are rich resources for learning;
(c) individuals learn what is required to perform their evolving life tasks;
(d) an adult's natural orientation is task or problem-centered learning;
(e) self-directed learners are motivated by various internal incentives,
such as need for self-esteem, curiosity, desire to achieve, and satisfaction
of accomplishment.
Another important research effort was Guglielmino's (1977) dissertation.
She developed the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS), an instrument
subsequently used by many researchers to measure self-directed readiness
or to compare various self-directed learning aspects with numerous characteristics.
Spear and Mocker's (1984) work on organizing circumstances showed how important
it is to understand a learner's environmental circumstances in promoting
self-directed learning.
Establishment of an annual International Symposium on Self-Directed Learning
in 1987 by Long and his colleagues completes this historical picture. The
Symposia have spawned many publications, research projects, and theory building
efforts by researchers throughout the world.
1.2 Competing Concepts
As with the development of many new ideas, self-directed learning has created
some confusion in that many related concepts are often used interchangeably
or in similar ways. Examples include self-directed learning, self-planned
learning, learning projects, self-education, self-teaching, autonomous learning,
autodidaxy, independent study, and open learning. Yet these terms typically
offer varied, though sometimes subtly different, emphases. To illustrate
some of these differences, six competing terms will be examined. Section
1.4 provides a conceptual model and corresponding definition of self-directed
learning.
(a) Self-planned learning and learning projects - Tough's (1979) research
on people engaged in learning projects involved obtaining information on
"a series of related episodes, adding up to at least seven hours"
where "more than half of the person's total motivation is to gain and
retain certain fairly clear knowledge and skill, or to produce some other
lasting change" (p. 7). Tough used the seven-hour parameter because
he felt it approximated a typical working day and separated brief learning
activities from more major endeavors. Actually, he and many others have
found that most learning projects far exceed the seven-hour minimum. Nearly
100 learning project surveys with various groups in ten countries have confirmed
that approximately 90 percent of adults conduct at least one intentional
learning project annually. A typical adult spends about 500 hours a year
in such learning with approximately 70 percent planned by the learner. This
self-planning predominance spawned considerable research on self-directed
learning.
(b) Autonomous learning - autonomy often is associated with independence
of thought, individualized decision-making, and critical intelligence. Gibbs
(1979) notes this concept "is probably the most familiar, for it is
part of an individualistic, anti-authoritarian ideology . . . deep-rooted
in Western capitalistic democracies" (p. 121). Chene (1983), another
Canadian researcher, suggests autonomy stands for psychological and methodological
learning dimensions. Boud (1988) provides several ideas on developing student
autonomy. Candy (1991), an Australian adult educator, suggests that continuous
learning is a process in which adults manifest personality attributes of
personal autonomy in self-managing learning efforts. He also profiles various
autonomous learner characteristics (pp. 459-66).
(c) Autodidaxy - Candy (1991) urges that self-direction be differentiated
as a goal for learner control of decision-making from an educational method
in which teachers use processes for promoting self-direction. He proposes
autodidaxy as a term for referring to self-instruction which takes place
outside of formal institutional settings.
(d) Self-education - self-directed learning can be called something else
from country to country or culture to culture. For example, in Russia it
is known as self-education:
The role of self-education naturally increases in adults, for the potential
possibilities of the personality are extremely great, and the formed world
outlook . . . will make it possible to develop one's abilities more successfully,
systematically and comprehensively. This is especially true since life does
not stand still and society is developing scientifically and technically.
Anyone who does not engage in self-education, voluntarily or not, lags behind
the demands of the time. (Ruvinsky 1986 p. 31)
Ruvinsky also describes several Russians who engage in self-education.
(e) Open learning - individualized study often is associated with external
degree, open learning, or non-traditional programs where most learning takes
place outside formal classrooms. One of the most widely known is England's
Open University, started in 1969, and emulated now in many countries. Currently,
development of many distance education efforts using computer-assisted learning
is necessitating new research and understanding regarding how technology
can enhance self-directed learning.
1.3 Synthesizing Relevant Research
There have been many overviews of self-directed learning research. Brockett
and Hiemstra (1991), Caffarella and O'Donnell (1987), Candy (1991), and
Merriam and Caffarella (1991) are some important sources to read.
Confessore and Confessore (1992) conducted a three-iteration delphi study
involving 22 self-directed learning experts from several countries. Consensus
was reached in several areas, such as the most important self-directed learning
research findings, research trends, practical applications, and published
works.
Based on such literature and research, five major findings can be extracted:
(a) several instruments for measuring some self-directed learning aspect
have been developed; (b) self-directed learning readiness has been associated
with a various performance, psychological, and social variables; (c) a majority
of self-directed learning research efforts have been qualitative in nature;
(d) practice implications and techniques for facilitating self-directed
learning are being devised; (e) a coherent self-directed learning theory
is still not available.
1.4 Towards a Theory of Self-Directed Learning
Some of the confusion still existing and the fact consensus views regarding
self-directed learning just becoming available are some reasons a coherent
theory is not available. Candy (1991) outlines some useful dimensions of
a theory and cautions about the often unrecognized dichotomy that exists
between self-directed learning as a process and as a goal. Long (1989) also
urges any self-directed learning theory building be examined in terms of
sociological, pedagogical, and psychological dimensions.
Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) synthesized many aspects of knowledge about
the topic and conceptualized the PRO (Personal Responsibility Orientation)
model. This model recognizes both differences and similarities between self-directed
learning as an instructional method and learner self-direction as a set
of personality characteristics. Personal responsibility refers to individuals
assuming ownership for their own thoughts and actions. This does not necessarily
mean control over all personal life circumstances or environmental conditions,
but it does mean people can control how they respond to situations.
In terms of learning, it is the ability or willingness of individuals to
take control that determines any potential for self-direction. This means
that learners have choices about the directions they pursue. Along with
this goes responsibility for accepting any consequences of one's thoughts
and actions as a learner.
Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) view the term self-directed learning (see Figure
1) as an instructional process centering on such activities as assessing
needs, securing learning resources, implementing learning activities, and
evaluating learning. Hiemstra and Sisco (1990) refer to this as individualizing
instruction, a process focusing on characteristics of the teaching-learning
transaction. In essence, this aspect of self-direction centers on those
factors external to the individual.
While much early research and seminal thinking (see section 1.1) focused
on this process orientation, more recent research has related to better
understanding various personal or personality characteristics of successful
self-directed learners. Self-concept, readiness for self-direction, the
role of experience, and learning styles have been some of the characteristics.
This emphasis on a learner's personal characteristics or internal factors
is shown in Figure 1 as learner self-direction. In essence, learner self-direction
refers to those individual characteristics that lead to taking primary responsibility
for personal learning.
Consequently, self-direction in learning is a term recognizing both external
factors that facilitate a learner taking primary responsibility, and internal
factors that predispose an adult accepting responsibility for learning-related
thoughts and actions. At the same time there is a strong connection between
self-directed learning and learner self-direction. Both internal and external
aspects of self-direction can be viewed on a continuum and optimal learning
conditions exist when a learner's level of self-direction is balanced with
the extent to which self-directed learning opportunities are possible.
The PRO model's final component is represented by a circle that encompasses
all other elements. While the individual's personality characteristics and
the teaching and learning process are starting points for understanding
self-direction, the social context provides an arena in which the learning
activity or results are created. To fully understand self-directed learning
activity, the interface existing between individual learners, any facilitator
or learning resource, and appropriate social dimensions must be recognized.
Thus, Brockett and Hiemstra recommend that self-direction in learning be
used as an umbrella definition recognizing those external factors facilitating
adults taking primary responsibility for learning and those internal factors
or personality characteristics that incline one toward accepting such responsibility.
2. Usefulness of Self-Directed Learning Approaches
Formal education and schooling remain highly valued in most societies, and
many educators, employers, policy-makers, and average citizens find it difficult
to place high value on what is learned on your own or outside the formal
system. However, adult educators have shown how non-traditional programs,
distance education, and self-directed learning efforts can meet many challenges
associated with keeping current on constantly changing knowledge. Self-directed
learning researchers have challenged the assumption that adult learning
can take place only in the presence of accredited teachers. In addition,
because people can carry out self-directed learning outside of training
organizations or formal schools, many administrators are beginning to look
toward such learning as a means for stretching scarce education dollars.
Several researchers also have demonstrated that giving some learning responsibility
back to learners in many instances is more beneficial than other approaches.
For example, in the workplace employees with busy schedules can learn necessary
skills at their own convenience through self-study. Some technical staff
in organizations who must constantly upgrade their knowledge can access
new information through an individualized resource center.
Perhaps most important of all, self-directed learning works! Many adults
succeed as self-directed learners when they could not if personal responsibility
for learning decisions were not possible. Some will even thrive in ways
never thought possible when they learn how to take personal responsibility.
In many respects, future learners will need to become very self-directed
throughout their lives just to cope with the enormity of information available
to them.
3. Self-Directed Learning Controversies
There have been several associated controversies. Many sources shown in
the bibliography discuss them. Three of the most prominent in the literature
will be discussed in this section.
(a) Brookfield (1988) provided several critical reflections on self-directed
learning. For example, he suggested the over-identification of adult education
researchers and practitioners with self-directed learning is unwise because
of its inadequate theoretical base. He also suggested that research on self-directed
learning up to 1988 had been carried out mainly with middle-class, white
subjects. Another concern was his perception that research on self-directed
learning had been primarily quantitative in nature.
Comment. As discussed elsewhere in this article there continues to
be a need for more adequate theory pertaining to self-directed learning.
Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) and others have been working toward that end.
Groups traditionally viewed as hard-to-reach or outside the middle-class
mainstream actually have been studied more widely than suggested by Brookfield.
Regarding his concern about excessive use of quantitative research, Long
and others associated with the annual International Symposium on Self-Directed
Learning (see the bibliography) have discovered that the majority of research
efforts actually have been qualitative in nature.
(b) Another major controversy has centered on Guglielmino's (1977) SDLRS,
an instrument used by many self-directed learning researchers. It has been
criticized as difficult to use with certain groups, without appropriate
validation, and both conceptually and methodologically flawed (Field, 1989).
Comment. Guglielmino, Long, and McCune (1989) refuted the criticisms
in a subsequent publication. The instrument appears to have some limitations
in terms of with whom and how it is used, but if employed appropriately
appears to be appropriate in helping to better understand aspects of self-directed
learning. However, additional instruments are needed for future quantitative
research.
(c) Candy (1991) suggests that research on self-directed learning has been
stalemated in recent years because of the absence of a consistent theoretical
base, continued confusion over the term's meaning, and the use of inappropriate
research paradigms.
Comment. Candy's criticisms seem consistent with what others have
reported and should prompt new thinking and research.
4. Emerging Trends and Issues
A number of trends are emerging from the research on self-directed learning.
Confessore and Confessore's (1992) delphi study also obtained consensus
views on several trends.
(a) One trend is research on the feasibility of self-directed learning meeting
some job-related training needs in industry (Ravid, 1987). For example,
during the 1992 International Symposium, nine out of thirty-five concurrent
sessions dealt with self-directed learning in the workplace.
(b) Another trend is efforts to better understand the role of technology
in self-directed learning (Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991). In the 1992 International
Symposium, eight of thirty-five sessions dealt with self-directed learning
and technology or distance education.
(c) A third trend described here relates to researchers' focus on enhancing
self-directed learning by better understanding environmental factors (Spear
and Mocker, 1984). For example, Hiemstra (1991) and his colleagues describe
various ways physical, social, and psychological aspects of the learning
environment can be affected.
4.1 Future Research Issues
Even though several research trends are observable, there still remain much
needed research.
(a) Additional research is required to test conceptual ideas like the PRO
model (Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991), and other emerging ideas to ensure
the evolvement of a theory of self-directed learning.
(b) Ways need to be found whereby organizations and educators can facilitate
self-directed learning and enhance critical thinking skills without impinging
on the value of self-directed or spontaneous learning. For example, Smith
and Associates (1990) describe how learners can be helped to learn, ask
critical questions, and reflect on what they are learning.
(c) It is important that better ways of incorporating computer technology
and electronic communication into self-directed learning be determined as
more distance education programs are created.
(d) Future research is needed on such issues as expanding the repertoire
of design and methodology for studying self-directed learning, how competencies
necessary for effective self-directed learning are developed, and how the
quality of self-directed learning resources can be measured.
(e) Ways of measuring and maintaining quality in self-directed learning
need to be determined.
(f) The most appropriate roles for educators and educational organizations
in relation to self-directed learning need to be found.
(g) Finally, ways for learners and others to evaluate the value and effectiveness
of self-directed learning need to be developed.
See also: Adult Learning; Autonomous Learning; Distance Education;
Independent study; Open Learning
References
Boud, D (ed) 1988 Developing Student Autonomy in Learning. Kogan
Page Limited, London, UK
Brockett, R G, Hiemstra, R 1991 Self-direction in Learning: Perspectives
in Theory, Research, and Practice. Routledge, London, UK
Brookfield, S D 1986 Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning.
Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, California
Brookfield, S D 1988 Conceptual, methodological and practical ambiguities
in self-directed learning. In: Long, H B and Associates 1988 Self-directed
Learning: Application & theory. Department of Adult Education, Tucker
Hall, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
Caffarella, R S, O'Donnell, J M 1987 Self-directed adult learning: A critical
paradigm revisited. Adult Education Quarterly, 37: 199-211.
Candy, P C 1991 Self-direction for Lifelong Learning. Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, California
Chene, A 1983 The concept of autonomy in adult education: A philosophical
discussion. Adult Education Quarterly, 1: 38-47.
Confessore, G J, Confessore, S J 1992 In search of consensus in the study
of self-directed learning. In: Long, H B and Associates 1992 Self-directed
Learning: Application and research. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing
Professional and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Craik, G L 1840 Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: Its Pleasures
and Rewards. Harper & Brothers, New York
Field, L 1989 An investigation into the structure, validity, and reliability
of Guglielmino's Self-Directed Learning Scale. Adult Education Quarterly,
39: 125-139
Gibbs, B 1979 Autonomy and authority in education. Journal of Philosophy
of Education, 13: 119-132
Guglielmino, L M 1977 Development of the self-directed learning readiness
scale (Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia). Dissertation Abstracts
International 1978 38: 6467A
Guglielmino, L M, Long, H B, McCune, S K 1989 Reactions to Field's investigation
into the SDLRS. Adult Education Quarterly, 39: 235-245
Hiemstra, R (ed) 1991 Creating Environments for Effective Adult Learning
(New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 50). Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, California
Hiemstra, R, Sisco, B 1990 Individualizing Instruction: Making Learning
Personal, Empowering, and Successful. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco,
California
Houle, C O 1961 The Inquiring Mind. The University of Wisconsin Press,
Madison, Wisconsin
Knowles, M S 1975 Self-directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers.
Cambridge Book Co., New York
Knowles, M S & Associates 1984 Andragogy in Action. Jossey-Bass
Publishers, San Francisco, California
Long, H B 1989 Self-directed learning: Emerging theory and practice. In:
Long, H B and Associates 1989 Self-directed Learning: Emerging Theory
& Practice. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional
and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Merriam, S B, Caffarella, R S 1991 Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive
Guide. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, California
Ravid, G 1987 Self-directed learning in industry. In: Marsick, V J (ed)
1987 Learning in the Workplace. Croom Helm, London, UK
Ruvinsky, L I 1986 Activeness and self-education (J. Sayer, Trans.).
Progress Publishers, Moscow
Smiles, S 1859 Self Help. John Murray, London, UK
Smith, R M and Associates 1990 Learning to Learn Across the Life Span.
Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, California
Spear, G E, Mocker, D W 1984 The organizing circumstance: Environmental
determinants in self-directed learning. Adult Education Quarterly,
35: 1-10
Tough, A 1979 The Adult's Learning Projects: A Fresh Approach to Theory
and Practice in Adult Learning, 2nd edn. University Associates (Learning
Concepts), San Diego, and Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto,
Ontario
Suggested Further Reading
Confessore, G J, Confessore, S J (eds) 1992 Guideposts to Self-directed
Learning. Organization Design and Development, Inc., 2002 Renaissance
Blvd., Suite 100, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania
Long, H B and Associates 1990 Advances in Research and Practice in Self-directed
Learning. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher
Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Long, H B and Associates 1991 Self-directed Learning: Consensus &
Conflict. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher
Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Long, H B, Terrence, R R 1991 Self-directed Learning Dissertation Abstracts
1966-1991. Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and
Higher Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
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